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| Ireland PROFILE
OFFICIAL NAME: Geography People Government Economy PEOPLE AND HISTORY A national literature in Irish is reemerging. Anglo-Irish writers, including
Swift, Sheridan, Goldsmith, Burke, Wilde, Joyce, Yeats, Shaw, and Beckett, have
made a major contribution to world literature over the past 300 years.
What little is known of pre-Christian Ireland comes from a few references in
Roman writings, Irish poetry and myth, and archaeology. The earliest
inhabitants--people of a mid-Stone Age culture--arrived about 6000 BC, when the
climate had become hospitable following the retreat of the polar icecaps. About
4,000 years later, tribes from southern Europe arrived and established a high
Neolithic culture, leaving behind gold ornaments and huge stone monuments for
archaeologists. This culture apparently prospered, and the island became more
densely populated. The Bronze Age people, who arrived during the next 1,000
years, produced elaborate gold and bronze ornaments and weapons.
The Iron Age arrived abruptly in the fourth century BC with the invasion of
the Celts, a tall, energetic people who had spread across Europe and Great
Britain in the preceding centuries. The Celts, or Gaels, and their more numerous
predecessors divided into five kingdoms in which, despite constant strife, a
rich culture flourished. This pagan society was dominated by druids--priests who
served as educators, physicians, poets, diviners, and keepers of the laws and
histories.
But the coming of Christianity from across the Irish Sea brought major
changes and civilizing influences. Tradition maintains that in 432 AD, St.
Patrick arrived on the island and, in the years that followed, worked to convert
the Irish to Christianity. Probably a Celt himself, St. Patrick preserved the
tribal and social patterns of the Irish, codifying their laws and changing only
those that conflicted with Christian practices. He also introduced the Roman
alphabet, which enabled Irish monks to preserve parts of the extensive Celtic
oral literature.
The pagan druid tradition collapsed in the face of the spread of the new
faith, and Irish scholars excelled in the study of Latin learning and Christian
theology in the monasteries that shortly flourished. Missionaries from Ireland
to England and the continent spread news of the flowering of learning, and
scholars from other nations came to Irish monasteries. The excellence and
isolation of these monasteries helped preserve Latin learning during the Dark
Ages. The arts of manuscript illumination, metalworking, and sculpture
flourished and produced such treasures as the Book of Kells, ornate jewelry, and
the many carved stone crosses that dot the island.
This golden age of culture was interrupted by 200 years of intermittent
warfare with waves of Viking raiders who plundered monasteries and towns. The
Vikings established Dublin and other seacoast towns but were eventually
defeated. Although the Irish were subsequently free from foreign invasion for
150 years, internecine clan warfare continued to drain their energies and
resources.
In the 12th century, Pope Adrian IV granted overlordship of the island to
Henry II of England, who began an epic struggle between the Irish and the
English which not only burned intermittently for 800 years but which continues
to affect Irish politics and bilateral relations to this day. The Reformation
exacerbated the oppression of the Roman Catholic Irish, and, in the early 17th
century, Scottish and English Protestants were sent as colonists to the north of
Ireland and the Pale around Dublin.
From 1800 to 1921, Ireland was an integral part of the United Kingdom.
Religious freedom was restored in 1829. But this victory for the Irish Catholic
majority was overshadowed by severe economic depression and mass famine from
1846-48 when the potato crop failed. The famine spawned the first mass wave of
Irish emigration to the United States. A decade later, in 1858, the Irish
Republican Brotherhood (IRB--also known as the Fenians) was founded as a secret
society dedicated to armed rebellion against the British. An above-ground
political counterpart, the Home Rule Movement, was created in 1874, advocating
constitutional change for independence. Galvanized by the leadership of Charles
Stewart Parnell, the party was able to force British governments after 1885 to
introduce several home rule bills. The turn of the century witnessed a surge of
interest in Irish nationalism, including the founding of Sinn Fein
("Ourselves Alone") as an open political movement.
Nationalism was and is a potent populist force in Irish politics. The
outbreak of war in Europe in 1914 put home rule efforts on hold, and, in
reaction, Padraic Pearse and James Connolly led the unsuccessful Easter Rising
of 1916. The decision by the British-imposed court structure to execute the
leaders of the rebellion, coupled with the British Government's threat of
conscription, alienated public opinion and produced massive support for Sinn
Fein in the 1918 general election. Under the leadership of Eamon de Valera, the
elected Sinn Fein deputies constituted themselves as the first Dail. Tensions
only increased: British attempts to smash Sinn Fein ignited the Anglo-Irish War
of 1919-1921.
The end of the war brought the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921, which established
the Irish Free State of 26 counties within the British Commonwealth and
recognized the partition of the island into Ireland and Northern Ireland, though
supposedly as a temporary measure. The six predominantly Protestant counties of
northeast Ulster--Northern Ireland--remained a part of the United Kingdom with
limited self-government. A significant Irish minority repudiated the treaty
settlement because of the continuance of subordinate ties to the British monarch
and the partition of the island. This opposition led to further hostilities--a
civil war (1922-23), which was won by the pro-treaty forces.
In 1932, Eamon de Valera, the political leader of the forces initially
opposed to the treaty, became prime minister, and a new Irish constitution was
enacted in 1937. The last British military bases were soon withdrawn, and the
ports were returned to Irish control. Ireland was neutral in World War II. The
government formally declared Ireland a republic in 1948; however, it does not
normally use the term "Republic of Ireland," which tacitly
acknowledges the partition but refers to the country simply as
"Ireland."
U.S.-IRISH RELATIONS Economic and trade relations are an important element of the bilateral
relationship. U.S. investment has been a major factor in the growth of the Irish
economy, and Irish membership in the European Union (EU) means that discussion
of EU trade and economic policies, as well as other aspects of EU policy, are a
key element in exchanges between the two countries.
Emigration, long a vital element in the U.S.-Irish relationship, has declined
significantly with Ireland's economic boom in the 1990s. For the first time in
its modern history, immigration to Ireland, especially of non-Europeans, is a
growing phenomenon with political, economic, and social consequences. However,
Irish citizens do continue the common practice of taking temporary residence
overseas for work or study, mainly in the U.S., U.K., and elsewhere in Europe,
before returning to establish careers in Ireland.
Principal U.S. Officials The U.S. embassy in Ireland is located at 42 Elgin Road, Ballsbridge, Dublin
4 (tel. 668-7122; fax 668-9946).
ECONOMY In 1999, the recent trend of a U.S. trade deficit with Ireland continued.
Overall, the value of U.S. imports from Ireland exceeded the value of U.S.
exports to Ireland by $3.3 billion. Nonetheless, given the continued favorable
outlook for the Irish economy, sales opportunities for U.S. producers in Ireland
are expected to improve. Export-Import Bank financing and the presence of major
U.S. banks in Ireland facilitate marketing by U.S. suppliers.
President Clinton and Irish Government officials have noted the important
contribution toward economic and social progress American industrial investment
in Ireland--north and south--has made. President Clinton has pledged to maintain
the U.S. commitment to facilitate the growth of such job-creating investment.
The International Fund for Ireland, which is funded by the U.S. Congress, has
contributed $5 million annually to Ireland to support cross-border initiatives.
U.S. investment has been particularly important to the growth and
modernization of Irish industry over the past 25 years, providing new
technology, export capabilities, and employment opportunities. The stock of U.S.
investment in Ireland at end-1998 was valued at $16.1 billion. Currently, there
are more than 580 U.S. subsidiaries, employing almost 86,000 people and spanning
activities from manufacturing of high-tech electronics, computer products,
medical supplies, and pharmaceuticals to retailing, banking and finance, and
other services.
Many U.S. businesses find Ireland an attractive location to manufacture for
the EU market, since it is inside the EU customs area. Government policies are
generally formulated to facilitate trade and inward direct investment. The
availability of an educated, well-trained, English-speaking work force and
relatively moderate wage costs have been important factors. Ireland offers good
long-term growth prospects for U.S. companies under an innovative financial
incentive program, including capital grants and favorable tax treatment, such as
a low corporation income tax rate for manufacturing firms and certain financial
services firms.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS The president appoints as prime minister the leader of the political party,
or coalition of parties, which wins the most seats in the Dail (house of
representatives). Executive power is vested in a cabinet whose ministers are
nominated by the Taoiseach and approved by the Dail.
The bicameral Oireachtas (parliament) consists of the Seanad Eireann (senate)
and the Dail Eireann (house of representatives). The Seanad is composed of 60
members--11 nominated by the prime minister, 6 elected by the national
universities, and 43 elected from panels of candidates established on a
vocational basis. The Senate has the power to delay legislative proposals and is
allowed 90 days to consider and amend bills sent to it by the Dail, which wields
greater power in parliament. The Dail has 166 members popularly elected to a
maximum term of 5 years under a complex system of proportional representation.
Judges are appointed by the president on nomination by the government and can
be removed from office only for misbehavior or incapacity and then only by
resolution of both houses of parliament. The ultimate court of appeal is the
Supreme Court, consisting of the Chief Justice and five other justices. The
Supreme Court also can decide upon the constitutionality of legislative acts if
the president asks for an opinion.
Local government is by elected county councils and--in the cities of Dublin,
Cork, Limerick, and Waterford--by county borough corporations. In practice,
however, authority remains with the central government.
Irish politics remain dominated by the two political parties that grew out of
Ireland's bitter 1922-23 civil war. Fianna Fail was formed by those who opposed
the 1921 treaty that partitioned the island. Although treaty opponents lost the
civil war, Fianna Fail soon became Ireland's largest political party. Fine Gael,
representative of the pro-treaty forces, remains the country's second-largest
party.
In recent years, however, there have been signs that this largely two-party
structure is evolving. Mary Robinson of the Labour Party shocked the political
establishment by winning the 1990 presidential election. Articulating a
progressive agenda for Ireland's future and outspoken on social issues, Robinson
represented a distinct break from the traditional politics of the two major
parties. The November 1992 general election confirmed this trend. The two main
parties lost ground as the Labour Party scored an historic breakthrough, winning
19% of the vote and 33 seats in the House. As a result of the election, Labour
held the balance of power between the two largest parties and initially chose to
go into coalition with Fianna Fail. That government collapsed in November 1994,
and Labour again demonstrated its new role when it dictated the terms of a new
"rainbow" government coalition with Fine Gael and the Democratic Left.
The year 1997, however, saw a return to a more traditional model. In the June
general election, Labour lost heavily and was reduced to 18 seats in the Dail.
Though Fianna Fail did not win an outright majority, it increased its seats to
76 (currently 75) and was able to form a coalition with the much smaller (4
seats) Progressive Democrats. Fine Gael also picked up seats but was unable to
form a coalition with the much-reduced Labour party. In the November 1997
presidential election, Fianna Fail candidate Mary McAleese, a lawyer from
Northern Ireland, won a record victory over four other candidates.
As a result of the 1997 elections, a minority government led by Taoiseach
(prime minister) Bertie Ahern of Fianna Fail took office. Mary Harney, who heads
the Progressive Democrats Party, serves as the Tanaiste (deputy prime minister)
and Minister for Enterprise, Employment, and Trade. The coalition relies on the
support of four independent members to give it a governing majority. In 1999,
the Labour Party absorbed the smaller party of the Democratic Left, bringing its
total number of seats in the Dail to 21 (currently 20).
Since coming to power, the government of Prime Minister Ahern has presided
over a strong economy. Ireland boasts the highest growth rate of any country in
the OECD over the last 3 years, low unemployment, and a surplus in the country's
finances. However, the "Celtic Tiger's" inflation rate has edged up
over the past year. To address this concern, Prime Minister Ahern has pledged
action to curb inflation and, thereby, sustain sound economic growth. On the
diplomatic front, the government has played a key role in brokering a lasting
peace in Northern Ireland, in bolstering Ireland's role in the European Union,
and in leading Ireland to join NATO's Partnership for Peace in 1999.
Most recently, allegations of political corruption related to property
development schemes, tax avoidance by business and political leaders, as well as
other scandals dating back to the late 1980s and early 1990s have surfaced. The
Dail has established two tribunals--the Flood Tribunal and the Moriarty
Tribunal--to investigate these various scandals, and the work of the two
tribunals will likely continue until 2001. Although several senior political
leaders and members of parliament have been named in connection with the
scandals, the government of Prime Minister Ahern remains stable, and most
observers think it unlikely new general elections will be held before spring
2001.
Northern Ireland The conflict in Northern Ireland stems from the division between
"Nationalist" and Unionist" segments of the Northern Ireland
population: Nationalists in Northern Ireland want unification with Ireland,
while Unionists want Northern Ireland to continue its union with Great Britain.
Since the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement granting Ireland a formal voice in
Northern Ireland affairs, there has been an extensive dialogue between the two
governments on how to bring about a peaceful, democratic resolution of the
conflict. In December 1993, the "Downing Street Declaration," holding
out the promise of inclusive political talks on the future of Northern Ireland,
was issued. This led the Irish Republican Army (IRA) to call a "total
cessation" of military operations on August 31, 1994. This was followed 6
weeks later by a similar cease-fire by the loyalist paramilitaries.
Following up on the cease-fires, the two governments in February 1995 issued
a "frameworks" document, which proposed a basis for negotiations.
Generally welcomed by Nationalists, it was rejected by Unionists, who disparaged
it as a "blueprint for a united Ireland." Despite the negative
Unionist reaction, the two governments tried to launch the negotiating process
by announcing that they would hold a series of bilaterals with all the
constitutional parties in the north.
The process stalled in 1995 due to disagreements between the British
Government and Sinn Fein, the political arm of the IRA, about the
decommissioning of IRA weapons. President Clinton's visit to Ireland in December
1995 led to the establishment later the same month of an International
Commission, chaired by former U.S. Senator George Mitchell, to recommend a
solution to this impasse.
The January 1996 "Mitchell Report" recommended decommissioning
during a talks process and was widely praised. However, the British Government
decision to hold elections for a negotiating body was seen as a step backwards,
and in February 1996 the IRA officially ended its cease-fire with a bomb attack
in London that killed two. At the end of February the two governments announced
that all-party talks would begin in June and be open to all parties disavowing
violence. In May 1996 the elections were held, with Sinn Fein doing particularly
well. However, the party was turned away from the negotiations, chaired by Sen.
Mitchell, when they began on June 10 because of the IRA's continued campaign of
violence.
Throughout the latter half of 1996 and early 1997 the negotiations made
little progress. The May 1997 election of Tony Blair and the Labour Party
Government in the U.K., however, re-energized the process and led to increasing
pressure on the IRA/Sinn Fein to restore the cease-fire. After gaining
assurances that the negotiations process would be time-limited and that
decommissioning would not again become a stumbling block, the IRA did restore
its cease-fire in July 1997, and Sinn Fein was admitted to the talks process in
September 1997. The negotiations moved from process into substance in October
1997. In a final marathon push in April 1998, which included the personal
intervention of President Clinton, all parties, on April 10, signed an
agreement. The "Good Friday" (April 10 happened to be Good Friday)
Agreement was put to a vote, and strong majorities in Northern Ireland and the
Republic of Ireland approved it in simultaneous referendums on May 22, 1998.
The agreement provides for a 108-member Northern Ireland elected assembly to
be overseen by a 12-minister executive committee in which Unionists and
Nationalists would share responsibility for governing. The agreement, which is
now being implemented, also will institutionalize the cross-border cooperation
with the Republic of Ireland and will create mechanisms to guarantee the rights
of all. Members of the 108-seat assembly were elected on June 25. The results of
the election confirm that four parties will play a dominant role in the new
legislative body: the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) won 28 seats, and the
Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) won 20 seats on the Unionist side. On the
Nationalist side, the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) won 24 seats and
Sinn Fein, 18. Assembly members met in "shadow" mode while they
prepared the procedures and modalities of the new legislative body, which
assumed governing responsibilities in 1999. Following the election, the Northern
Ireland Executive was created, headed by First Minister David Trimble (UUP), and
Deputy Minister Seamus Mallon (SDLP) emerged in December 1999.
The issue of decommissioning has proven to be a stumbling block that, for a
time, thwarted effective implementation of the Good Friday Agreement. When the
UUP threatened to pull out of the powersharing Executive in February 2000 over
what the UUP charged was the IRA's failure to disarm in accordance with the
commitments made in the Belfast Agreement, the British Government suspended
Northern Ireland's local governing body. In so doing, it sought to prevent both
sides from renouncing the 1998 Good Friday Agreement altogether. Nevertheless, a
substantial majority of Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland and in the
Republic of Ireland continued to support the peace process throughout the 72-day
impasse.
British Prime Minister Tony Blair and Irish Prime Minister Bertie Ahern
mediated a series of talks aimed at the restoration of the Northern Ireland
Executive, as high-level engagement on the part of Ireland, the United Kingdom,
and the United States continued. Finally, on May 6, 2000, the IRA pledged to put
its arms completely and verifiably "beyond use" in a groundbreaking
statement on decommissioning. David Trimble, as leader of the Ulster Unionist
Party (UUP), welcomed the statement and rallied support for his party's return
to the Executive. In a divided vote, 459 in favor to 403 against, the UUP
decided to resume its involvement. On May 29, 2000, the British Government
restored direct rule to Northern Ireland. President Clinton hailed the
resumption of Northern Ireland's home rule as an important step toward the
"promise of peace."
Although the reestablishment of the Executive has further reinforced popular
and political support for the Good Friday Agreement, significant challenges
persist. Splinter groups opposed to the peace process have committed terrorist
attacks in Northern Ireland and in mainland Britain on several occasions since
the Belfast Agreement was signed. The worst of these attacks took place in
Omagh, Co. Tyrone in August 1998 when 29 people were killed and hundreds
seriously injured. Other divisive issues that have yet to be resolved include
carrying out the Patten Commission's recommendations on reform of the Royal
Ulster Constabulary (Northern Ireland's police force), as well as the emotive
issue of flying British and Irish flags over public buildings on holidays and
special occasions.
U.S. Government policy on Northern Ireland condemns all acts of terrorism and
violence, perpetrated by any party on either side. It also cautions all
Americans to question closely any appeal for financial or other aid from groups
involved in the Northern Ireland conflict to ensure that contributions do not
end up in the hands of those who support violence, either directly or
indirectly.
Principal Government Officials The Irish Embassy in the United States is at 2234 Massachusetts Ave. NW,
Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-462-3939/40/41/42). Irish Consulates are located
in New York, Chicago, Boston, and San Francisco.
TRAVEL AND BUSINESS INFORMATION Emergency information concerning Americans traveling abroad may be obtained from the Office of Overseas Citizens Services at (202) 647-5225. For after-hours emergencies, Sundays and holidays, call 202-647-4000. Passport information can be obtained by calling the National Passport Information Center's automated system ($.35 per minute) or live operators 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. (EST) Monday-Friday ($1.05 per minute). The number is 1-900-225-5674 (TDD: 1-900-225-7778). Major credit card users (for a flat rate of $4.95) may call 1-888-362-8668 (TDD: 1-888-498-3648). It also is available on the internet. Travelers can check the latest health information with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia. A hotline at 877-FYI-TRIP (877-394-8747) and a web site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/index.htm give the most recent health advisories, immunization recommendations or requirements, and advice on food and drinking water safety for regions and countries. A booklet entitled Health Information for International Travel (HHS publication number CDC-95-8280) is available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, tel. (202) 512-1800. Information on travel conditions, visa requirements, currency and customs regulations, legal holidays, and other items of interest to travelers also may be obtained before your departure from a country's embassy and/or consulates in the U.S. (for this country, see "Principal Government Officials" listing in this publication). U.S. citizens who are long-term visitors or traveling in dangerous areas are encouraged to register at the U.S. embassy upon arrival in a country (see "Principal U.S. Embassy Officials" listing in this publication). This may help family members contact you in case of an emergency. |
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